The History of the Criminal Justice System Research Paper

The History of the Criminal Justice System - Research Paper Example The main systems are: During the colonial period, Americans were living in a society that did not have any rules and laws that were formalized so as to protect and guide behavior from criminal activities. Americans were still figuring out the way to coexist in a land that was new. The modern criminal justice system is the outcome of many several evolution changes that have been undergone by the society from the time of the United States’ inception. Over the years, mechanisms have been established the institute and enforce the society’s rules as well as punish offenders and assign responsibility. Currently, those functions are undertaken by the police, and corrections. Initially, United States’ criminal justice system did not have this structure. Prior to the establishment of the formal laws, rules, and institution, Americans depended on religion and sin as the way of shaping the society and its behavior. Biblical terms defined a lot of colonial crime codes, which made offenses like p rofanity, sacrileges of the Sabbath, and blasphemy highly punishable (Falk, G. 2010). Punishments like stoning, dunking, and whipping were made to humiliate the offenders and eventually result to their repentance. As the American society grew, both in population and location, religion became less frequent in guiding criminal justice. Now the laws were designed to uphold and values and morality, which were a common concern for many people during this time rather than religion. The changes led to increased laws and more violations. Whether right or wrong, ineffective or effective, these events shaped the contemporary criminal justice system of the United States. The shift from small, religiously same towns as large cities that are diverse and cultural customs were of great extent, permanently transformed the landscape of the criminal justice system, this created the necessity for formalized courts, police, and corrections (Monkkonen, E. H. 2002). The time

China :: essays research papers fc

Qin Shihuangdi   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Among one of the first dynasties the Qin dynasty would be the start to revolutionize the world. The Qin dynasty was ruled by Qin Shihuangdi in the late 200’s BCE. In creating the first empire, Qin Shihuangdi divided the land into separate provinces and districts, standardized laws and public works.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Qin created a bureaucracy in China by dividing the lands into thirty-six separate provinces, â€Å"The first emperor divided the country into thirty-six commanderies...† (Territorial, Political and Cultural Growth of China, 309). These provinces were further divided into many separate districts which were governed by three Qin representatives: a civil governor, a military governor and an imperial inspector. These three representatives governed their districts and collected taxes for the emperor, â€Å"Thus tax collection and conscription of men for the army and labor on government projects and all other important functions were centralized† (Peijin). Creating a bureaucracy caused China to modify and set ideas of laws.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Along with the implementation of the bureaucracy came much standardization. The written language was standardized, as were the systems of weights, measurements and currencies, â€Å"The individual systems of weights, measures and currency which had existed in each of the Warring States were changed to conform to the Qin state standard† (Peijin). Furthermore, an uniform set of laws were established throughout the empire. Even such seemingly trivial things like the axle seize in carts were standardized, â€Å"... even the axle length of carts was made uniform† (Peijin). Because with a standard size cart, the emperor was able to build standard size roads.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Public works was a huge part of the Empire. Construction of the Great Wall began during Qin’s rule, although it didn’t reach its full glory until the Ming dynasty, â€Å"The Qin dynasty commanded a high level of technological skill and artistic talent, as attested by the first emperor’s mausoleum, an enormous complex of underground chambers extending over an area of twenty-one square miles(Territorial, Political and Cultural Growth of China, 309). Many canals and roads were built during his reign,†...established conditions for the improvement of production, transportation, communications, administration and cultural mingling among the different parts of the country† (Peijin). Public works is still used today in the modern world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dividing the land into separate provinces and districts, standardizing laws and

Mind/Body Problem Essay

The mind/body problem is the problem of specifying the relationship between the mind and body. Before further explanation of this issue, it is important to fully understand each term as it is being used throughout this paper. The mind, as I will call it, is representational of the consciousness of an individual. This is to say that the part of a person which determines will and choice, the experiences and sensations are collectively referred to as mind. The body, at times more specifically, the brain, denotes the physical aspects of a person. This is inclusive of the physical mass, neurons responsiveness to stimuli, and physical location. Now, with a more complete understanding of mind and body, one is able to return to the issue of the relationship concerning the two. One way to view this subject is to think of it as defining the relationship of mental states and brain (neural) states. While philosophers have not reached a definitive explanation to this issue, the years have provided ample time for a few prominent theories to develop. It may be thought that science could provide an answer to our problem, though this is not the case. While science may give us insight to different functions of brain states that correlate to mental processes, it does not definitely prove how they are related or why. This can be explained through the point of view perception. Science can give a clear understanding of how the brain functions; it can paint a rich picture of the inputs and outputs. Science may also have the ability to explain what feelings and emotions are. For example, it may be able to explain biting into a summer peach and describe the taste. However, science cannot experience the way a summer peach tastes to me, as an individual. It cannot feel the way I do whenever I think about my mother. This is the difference in the third person perspective (the only one that science is truly able to offer) and the first person perspective of the individual actually experiencing the situation. While it seems as though there is a causal relationship between the mind and body, meaning that the mind affects the body and the body has an effect on the mind, the question still remains as to how this interaction functions and why. It is at this point that philosophers provide different solutions to these questions. The dualist perspective offers that the mind and body are two completely distinct ontological entities, whether in composition, function, or interaction. Conversely, the physicalist argues that the mind and body are both explainable in physical terms because there is nothing more to this world than the physical aspects. This is to say that the mind is of the same stuff as the body because in fact, they are the same. The mind is simply a process of the physical brain. Frank Jackson utilizes a mind experiment in his writing, What Mary Didn’t Know to challenge this thought of physicalism. Jackson asks his readers to imagine a woman named Mary who is confined to a black and white room. She is taught through a black and white screen everything that there is to know about the physical nature of the world. According to physicalism, she knows all there is to know. However, one day Mary is taken outside of the black and white room. At this time, she will learn what it is like to see and experience the color red. According to Jackson, Mary learns something new; something above and beyond all of her physical knowledge of the world. If this is the case, that would result in the fact that there are some things in the world that are not physical things. Jackson’s argument may be structured in a way that clearly defines his point. Mary knows everything physical there is to know about other people. Mary does not know everything there is to know about other people. It follows that there are truths about other people that escape the physicalist’s story. Utilizing the knowledge argument, Jackson asserts that because Mary learned what experiencing the color red is like, that she learned something new and gained knowledge about something outside the physicalist’s argument. This, in Jackson’s perspective, discredits physicalism because if while in the black and white room Mary knows every physical fact, then she must know everything. However, by gaining a new experience and learning something outside of the room, then there are things that cannot be explained physically. Jackson argues that learning on a black and white screen isn’t enough to learn about mental life. It is not enough to learn about the qualia of experiences. These qualia refer to the individual qualitative feelings of an experience. For example, what tasting a ripe summer peach is actually like to experience. Therefore there must be something more to the story. Taking a different view, Colin McGinn offers his perspective on the mind/body problem in his writing, Can we Solve the Mind—Body Problem? McGinn suggests that no, we cannot solve the mind/body problem and therein lies our solution- that we should not be worried about this issue because we will never be able to solve it. McGinn maps out several reasons to support his conclusion. He begins by explaining why previous attempts of explanation have failed to clarify the mind/body problem. McGinn states that previous arguments use one of two tactics. The first is to resort to the use of supernatural means. McGinn says that this is just as â€Å"extreme as the problem†, meaning that proving this premise is just as difficult as the conclusion it is designed to support. Furthermore, he says that other arguments employ the use of explaining mental states through physical properties of the brain. This proves problematic as well. McGinn offers a different avenue, it is what he calls, cognitive closure. He believes that there is a natural explanation for the way in which the mind and body interact with each other but that we, as humans, are closed to its explanation. He proposes his argument in this way: Human minds are similar to biological bodies in which that they have different levels of capacity and cognitive capability. Even though a mind may not possess the cognitive ability to understand a concept, this would not imply that the concept is untrue. He uses the example of the light spectrum. While humans can only view a small portion of the light spectrum, it does not discount the other levels. The same principle may be applied here. Furthermore, an idea may be completely cognitively closed if there is no possibility of any mind being able to understand it. However, the same standard of its truth value remains. McGinn argues that the mind/body problem is an issue that is completely cognitively closed to humans. Therefore, no matter what advancements in science or technology that may occur, it will still never be enough to understand the mind/body problem. This should give humans some peace of mind. McGinn says that there should be not need to worry about solving an issue that can never be solved. Keeping McGinn’s paradigm of thought in mind, once again consider Jackson’s article, What Mary didn’t know. While Jackson seems to offer a strong argument, McGinn may object to it on the basis of his first premise. If the human mind is cognitively closed to certain levels of knowledge, then it is impossible for Mary to learn everything there is to know in her black and white room. In fact, it does not matter where Mary receives her learning, she will never gain complete knowledge. Her limit would reach the level of knowledge in which her brain is cognitively open to her. While it is true that Mary would have the knowledge of everything that humans could possibly understand; she still is not all-knowing. By denying Jackson’s first premise, it renders his argument invalid.

Affirmative Action Essay - 4934 Words

Affirmative Action The Webster dictionary defines affirmative action as an â€Å"active effort to improve the employment or educational opportunities of members of minority groups†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This paper will discuss the history of affirmative action and its effects on education and the work force in our society. I will argue why affirmative action is necessary for minorities to gain equal opportunities educationally and economically and how affirmative action is morally required as reparation for past discrimination. I will also discuss why many people believe that affirmative action is a step in the wrong direction and point out several arguments as to why we should get rid of affirmative action and try to validate their claims. Affirmative†¦show more content†¦The history of the United States is infested with past discrimination, oppression, and hostility toward certain minority groups, especially African Americans, and the Government needed to formulate a plot that would reconcile the pa st. Although affirmative action has its flaws, it has been the best strategy to make reparations for the hundreds of years that colored people were deemed inferior to white people. My belief is that had we not discriminated so inhumanely towards these groups of people they would not be considered â€Å"inferior† by many in modern times. In much of the history of the United States, blacks were not given the opportunity to compete for things such as job availability, wages, and housing, and so there was not fair competition between the races. This made it possible for a rapid advancement of the white population, while minority groups were forced to do the best they could with the limited amount of resources that were available to them. A fair starting point in the race of competition for opportunities was clearly lacking, and this discrepancy in competition is what affirmative action is trying to amend in the modern world. Lyndon B. Johnson was the first president to implement some sort of affirmative action program in 1965, where he declared that government contracted jobs must take into consideration ethnic backgrounds when hiring, and it also gaveShow MoreRelatedThe Affirmative Of Affirmative Action Essay1389 Words   |  6 Pages Many affirmative action efforts have been made since the end of the Civil War in order to remedy the results of hundreds of years of slavery, segregation and denial of opportunity for groups that face discrimination. Many African Americans such as President Barack Obama, Senator Cory Booker, the writer Toni Morrison, the literary scholar Henry Louis Gates, media star Oprah Winfrey, and rap star Jay-Z have achieved positions of power and influence in the wider society (Giddens, Duneier, AppelbaumRead MoreAffirmative Action1160 Words   |  5 PagesAffirmative Action Marlene S. Smith MGT/434 October 28, 2013 Thomas Affirmative Action Affirmative action is an action that was purposefully designed to provide full and equal opportunities for employment and education for women, minorities, and other individuals belonging to disadvantaged groups. This paper will assess the rudiments of Affirmative Action as it applies to public and private sector employers. 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Today affirmative action and other racial injustices tend to be in the spotlight quite often, suchRead MoreAffirmative Action774 Words   |  4 PagesAffirmative action is a practice that is intended to promote opportunities for the â€Å"protected class† which includes minorities, woman, and people with disabilities or any disadvantaged group for that matter. With affirmative action in place people of this protected class are given an even playing field in terms of hiring, promotion, as well as compensation. Historically, affirmative action is only known to have protected African Americans and woman; however that is not the case. Affirmative actionRead MoreAffirmative Action : Gender Action Essay970 Words   |  4 PagesAffirmative Action (ADD PROPER INTRO) Affirmative action, in its broadest sense, are attempts to help create labor and educational opportunities for groups that have been disadvantaged in the past. (Miriam Webster). Evidence has shown that throughout history, many groups have been discriminated against, and because of past (discriminations?), they continue to experience obstacles in areas of hiring, promotion, renting, buying, gaining education, and everyday economic activities. Thus, affirmativeRead MoreAffirmative Action Is An Action Or Policy? Essay1774 Words   |  8 Pages Affirmative Action remains one of the more complicated and controversial topics dealt with in American society. Affirmative Action is an action or policy designed to protect specific groups who suffer from discrimination, and provide them with programs and special opportunities. These government or private programs were designed to set right historical injustices towards the members of these groups who have suffered things like employment and e ducational disadvantages from racial discrimination